The Italian city-states of the 12th and 13th centuries were so fractious, disputes over who would acquire public offices so ugly, that at times the entire citizenry collectively agreed to surrender governance to a stranger.

He was given the title of podesta or mayor and had licence to govern the city for a year. He ruled in utter isolation. In some cases, such as Modena in the early 13th century, the podesta was not permitted so much as to have dinner with local citizens for fear that he would be corrupted. When his term was up, his accounts were rigorously audited before he was permitted to leave...

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