Two parliamentary acts aimed at strengthening the ANC’s hold on rural areas threaten to recreate the Bantustans where about 18-million people live, according to opponents ranging from the Nelson Mandela Foundation to the EFF.

They argue that acts provide a de jure “split-level” citizenship in SA between urban citizens who are afforded the protection of the conventional legal system and rural citizens living in the former “homelands” who are forced to submit to often antiquated, patriarchal, undemocratic, and dehumanising tribal regimes operating within reinforced apartheid-era boundaries and racial definitions. ..

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